Cyrus the Great: A Short Bio (part 1 of 2)

 

The Ancient Persian (or Achaemenid) Empire dominated the Middle East from roughly 550 to 330 BC. Compared to its predecessors in the region, it lasted a long time and came to be seen as a model for empire-building, even by its eventual destroyer Alexander the Great. It was founded by another “The Great,” Cyrus the Great. Cyrus is one of the more highly regarded ancient rulers. Many respect him for his, by the standards of the time, generosity and mercy towards conquered peoples. He rarely massacred entire populations and did not often resort to mass enslavement either. He let local rulers stay on as part of his administration, creating a soft rule over his holdings. Cyrus is also a legend among many in Iran, as he was the one who catapulted their Persian ancestors to the status of a great civilization. Judaism and Christianity alike also have a positive image of him as he allowed the captive Hebrews to return to the Levant and rebuild their cities (though as it turns out there is a caveat on this matter).

Despite his importance to world history, we know very little about Cyrus. What has been passed down is largely suspect. Little contemporary records exist from the time of his life and most of these, such as the Nabonidus Verse Account and Cyrus Cylinder, are obvious pieces of propaganda from a time when people did not have a widely circulated press, much less the internet, to seek out the truth. Most ancient sources are actually Greek histories. These were written decades to hundreds of years after the events of Cyrus’ life. They were based on Persian historical legends and orally transmitted hearsay, and then filtered through Greek biases. The most popular Greek sources is Xenophon’s account of his time as a Greek mercenary in a Persian civil war. Xenophon related many tales he heard of Cyrus the Elder. Ironically it’s riddled with literary liberties and inaccuracies as well as the promotion of the author’s Greek beliefs. Concerning the Cyrus the Great’s characteristics, Xenophon falsely depicts him embracing and spouting Socratic philosophy while also worshipping the Greek pantheon of gods and goddesses. The most respected source is Herodotus’ Histories. The father of historians, Herodotus carefully weighted various accounts and tried to piece together the most likely narrative.

Modern secondary sources have been invaluable in helping sift through the legends. Reza Zarghamee’s book is my personal favorite and makes some serious efforts to understand the Cyrus stories in their proper context. Stephen Dando-Collins’ biography is an easy read and good intro, though the author goes off on a political tangent at the end of his book. Jacob Abbotts’ old-time tome from 1904 is another useful and easy to read summary.

On a final note, Cyrus itself is a Greek-ified name. In his actually native language it was pronounced “Kourosh.”

 

A Fairy Tale Childhood

Cyrus’ life before the founding of the Persian Empire is in a shroud. No historian actually knows his true background. All that is known is that he grew up a Persian at a time when they were ruled by the Median Empire. Astyages, ruler of the empire, held the throne at the fortified city of Ecbatana. The Medes were another Iranian people. They themselves had been ruled over by the Assyrians, but joined an alliance to overthrow these people and assert their own self-rule. Many historians believe that Cyrus was an ambitious Persian prince, perhaps their ruler, or a Persian administrator within the Median government.

There is a detailed account of Cyrus’ earlier life, but it reads like mythology, and Greek mythology for that matter. Herodotus provides this popular narrative. According to Herodotus, Astyages had a dream in which his daughter Mandana spurted so much water that she flooded Asia. He went to the Magi to have this troubling dream interpreted. The Magi told him that Mandana’s child would supplant him as ruler. Astyages was not going to have his daughter executed, so he sought to prevent the prophecy by instead marrying him to Cambyses, a Persian prince of “good disposition.” (in other words non-confrontational) The Persians were at this time a subject people to the Medes and so Cyrus would be ineligible to rule.

Astyages had another dream, however, in which a vine grew out of his daughter and covered Asia. Now he commanded Harpagus, a young relative on his personal staff, to “take the child which Mandana bore, and carry it to your house and slay it; and afterwards bury it in whatever manner you desire.” Harpagus took the child, but was reluctant to actually kill him. With tears in his eyes, he told his wife that he could not bring himself to kill an infant, yet could not disobey his king either. He also was afraid that if Astyages died without any male heir (a likely possibility given his age), then Mandana would assume the throne and take revenge on him. His solution to this moral conundrum was to hand the baby over to Mithradates. Harpagus did not divulge the infant’s royal lineage and commanded Mithradates to kill it himself. However, after Harpagus left, Mithradates’ wife intervened and pleaded with her husband to spare him. As it happened she just delivered a stillborn baby. The already dead infant was given to Harpagus to bury and the herdsmen had a son to raise. Cyrus’ name during his childhood is not known.

This neo-classical painting by Jean-Charles Nicaise Perrin
shows Astyages sending Harpagus out with the infant Cyrus.

This is already an incredible narrative, something out of a Greek myth or a work of fiction. It even has some similarities to the Biblical account of Moses, just with a royal ending up in the care of peasants rather than the other way around. What happens next in Herodotus’ narrative is surprisingly coincidental. When he was ten years old, Cyrus and his friends played king. It was decided that Cyrus would be the king while his friends played his subjects. The son of a reputable Mede named Artembares, however, did not follow Cyrus’ commands as he was a noble and the “king” the child or herders. Cyrus took his playtime seriously and had him whipped. The victim went to his father and complained, and Artembares in turn grabbed Cyrus and brought him to Astyages. For a herdsman, little better than a slave, to punish someone of higher status was a scandal. Astyages demanded that the herdsman’s boy explain himself. The ten year old said:

 

“Master, I did so to him with right. For the boys of the village, of whom he also was one, in their play set me up as king over them, for I appeared to them most fitted for this place. Now the other boys did what was commanded them, but this one disobeyed and paid no regard, until at last he received the punishment due. If therefore for this I am worthy to suffer any evil, here I stand before thee.”

 

The boy’s assured speech jolted Astyages’ brain. He suddenly felt that he recognized the child, that they shared certain facial features. The king of the Medes fell speechless, then recovered and told Artembares and his son to leave, the boy unpunished. He now brought forward Mithradates and asked how he came upon his son, who was obviously of high birth. The herdsman insisted that it was his biological son. Astyages was not convinced and had him taken to the torture chamber, where he spilled the entire truth. Astyages now knew that Harpagus had betrayed him, handing Mandana’s son over to another man who instead spared him.

Harpagus said he had tried to fulfill his command without drawing blood himself. Astyages then surprised him with praises, telling him how happy he was that he had averted a great evil by indirectly sparing Cyrus and producing in the growth of such a wonderful boy. He invited Harpagus to a banquet and also called for his son as well so he should give favor to his offspring. Harpagus happily told his wife of his incredible turn of fortune and then went to the king for his meal. Well into the feast, Astyages asked Harpagus how he enjoyed his meat. Harpagus said he was pleased. Then Astyages shocked his guest by revealing he had eaten part of his son. He further brought in the head and other remains of his boy to confirm it. Harpagus showed reverence for the king, saying he had been justly punished. In reality, however, Harpagus stewed over the morbid execution of his son and remained on the lookout for an opportunity to avenge him.

As for Cyrus himself, the king now allowed him to live within the royal family. His reasoning, backed by the Magi, was that the boy had indeed become king when he was chosen for the job in his village. Since Cyrus had already rose up to rule, albeit in the confine of children’s games, Astyages no longer had any reason to fear him. Believe it or not, this is the more realistic story. Another account literally has baby Cyrus thrown into the wilderness where wild animals raise him. In both cases Cyrus is presented as having Persian and Median heritage. This would legitimize his rule over both peoples and suggests that the tale served this political purpose.

 

The Silver Arms

According to the Book of Daniel in the Bible, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar had a vision of a statue. The head was of gold, the breast and arms of silver, the belly and thighs of bronze, the legs of iron, and the feet a mix of iron and clay. A rock came from heaven and destroyed it. Daniel explained to the king that this statue was in fact a timeline of the various nations which would hold power over the earth. The gold head was Babylon, a great nation. The silver breast and arms represented the kingdom that would follow. Theologians and historians understand the silver arms to represent the duality of the coming Persian-Mede Empire. But how did this come to be?

Cyrus spent his teens and 20s in Ecbatana, working various positions on Astyages’ staff. These included helping the palace decorator, chef treasurer, and chief torchbearer. He finally became the royal cupbearer when the official holder of the position fell sick. Cyrus proved so adept at this job, which one recent biographer compared to that of a butler, that he kept this role for years.

As Cyrus grew into his new role, Harpagus, still privately stewing over the sadistic murder of his son, schemed to depose Astyages. He was able to convince several Median nobles that Astyages must be removed. He also sought out the friendship of Cyrus. According to Herodotus it was Harpagus who convinced the king’s grandson to overthrow Astyages. He pointed out his incredible good fortune, how he had cheated death and reclaimed his birth right through remarkable coincidence. He was telling Cyrus that he was destined to gain power. Harpagus also had many supporters among the Median nobles. The Medes traditionally had the king work with the nobles in assemblies before finalizing his decisions. Astyages chose to rule in the Assyrian manner, only allowing nobles to see him through special access and replacing the assemblies with a royal bureaucracy.

Amidst this intrigue, Cyrus departed Ecbatana as an envoy to the Cadusians, a mountain people who were considering more friendly relations with the Medes. It was at this time that Cyrus met Oebares, a Persian horse groomer who he found to be highly intelligent. The two became fast friends and Oebares would become Cyrus’ right hand man. Like Harpagus, Oebares helped Cyrus gain the vision and confidence to plot against the king. He started with the suggestion that he put the Cadusians into a secret alliance with the Persians.

Cyrus also acquired a wife, the Persian noble girl Cassandana. Though it was an arranged marriage among nobles, the two reportedly were very much in love. However he had expected to be married to Astyages’ daughter Amytis, which would have put him in line for the throne. Astyages had no solid heir and Cyrus was a proven leader (and according to the tales of his childhood a relative). However much he loved Cassandana, this denial of his succession to kingship is another considered cause for his decision to revolt.

The Persians had much reason to follow Cyrus in rebellion. The Medes’ empire, not all that old, had originally been loosely run by Cyaxares, Astyages’ father and the conqueror of the Persians and other peoples. Astyages believed he needed a stronger, more centralized state should war resume with his western Anatolian neighbor Lydia (present day western Turkey). He installed more Median authorities over the Persians, dispensing with much of their remaining autonomy. He may also have created religious tensions, advancing the religion of Mithra when the Persians worshipped Ahura Mazda, the main deity of Zoroastrianism (Cyrus himself was a devotee of Marduk, the favored god of the Babylonians). Astyages’ decision to not pursue Cyrus as his heir was the last straw.  Cyrus spent his last days in Ecbatana making further deals with his Median allies and then left. Sources differ as to whether he slipped away or was in fact sent to Persia by a fearful and suspicious Astyages.

Regardless of what inspired him and his associates, Cyrus grabbed his father Cambyses’ flocks and ordered a mass slaughter. With their bodies he hosted a grand feast in a meadow for the Persians. Cyrus asked his pleased guests whether they were happier the day before or now. They said that “the former day had for them nothing but evil, and the present day nothing but good.” Cyrus then told them that if they pledged their allegiance to him, they would have numerous other days like this. They would be free of Median oppression. The Persians heartily agreed. They felt they now had a leader who would liberate them. Ironically Cyrus’ father Cambyses was one of the more reluctant ones. He thought that an open rebellion was a rash idea. Nevertheless he was roped in and served as one of his son’s chief generals. He commanded the right wing of his army. Oebares commanded Cyrus’ left.

The Persians revolted at an opportune moment. The Medes were just hit by several smaller rebellions, as well as a border war with the Babylonian Empire. These conflicts were much closer to their home. While Astyages dealt with these threats, Cyrus targeted smaller Median armies. In 552 BC 300 Median cavalry pursued Cyrus to the town of Hyrba. There they found a peasant army, equipped with homemade pikes and farmer scythes. Seeing this mob as no great threat, the soldiers made a beeline for Cyrus. Their confidence was their undoing. Oebares led the left wing of the Persians around and into the rear of the cavalry. Cyrus and Oebares’ men killed 250 of the Medes and sent the rest running. A messenger from Astyages shortly arrived informing Cyrus that the king demanded his presence at Ecbatana. Cyrus replied, “Tell him that I will appear before him sooner than he will like.” He did not get there soon, however, as the Persians and Medes warred for a while. Cyrus seemed to win more than he lost, but was unable to achieve any decisive victories.

Astyages eventually decided that he needed to remove this Persian thorn in his side. In 551 BC, he had his followers grab the Magi who had convinced him that Cyrus was no longer a threat. He ordered them impaled. He then armed all remaining men in the city, including the old and the youths. Though these were not first-rate soldiers, they would be marching out with a more professional core. They would also give their king an overwhelming numerical superiority. The commander of this army was none other than Harpagus. Though this might have seemed like a blessing to Cyrus, he and his Median co-conspirators did not feel confident enough to turn on Astyages just yet. They thus allowed Astyages’ actual supporters to legitimately fight the Persians while they looked for a safer opportunity to proclaim a change of allegiance.

The Persians made a stand at an unidentified city near the great mountain of Pasargadae. The Medes advanced against them, with Astyages watching the battle from a mounted throne in their rear. The Medes began the battle by advancing their chariots, each equipped with an archer or javelin thrower. The two sides threw missiles at each other before the Medes’ front line of infantry advanced. When they were close enough, Cyrus ordered a counter-attack with his own chariots. Instead of veering away after a few volleys, they actually charged head on into the Medes’ ranks, repelling this first assault. The Persians fought off many more assaults until night fell. Accounts claim that the Persians inflicted the greater part of casualties, though Cambyses was seriously wounded. Under cover of darkness Cyrus ordered the women and children evacuated further up to a fortified hill. This proved to be a wise decision. The next day the Medes started to encircle the Persians and Cyrus had to beat a hasty retreat through a mountain pass. Oebares covered his escape with a well-executed rear guard action. The Medes captured the city. Among the Persians that fell into their hands was the wounded Cambyses. Astyages chose to spare the Persian prince as he had advised against the revolt. However he succumbed to his wounds anyways and died.

The dispirited Persians now prepared defenses on Pasargadae itself. On the night before the battle Cyrus strode off from his men to make a private offering to the gods at a shepherd’s hut. According to legend thunder and lightning struck and birds of prey, associated with the Persian war god Verethragna, surrounded the hut. Cyrus related this fantastic occurrence to his army and lifted its morale.

Battle of Pasargadae

The Persians descended down the mountainside while the Medes advanced. The Medes had many reluctant or inexperienced soldiers in their ranks, so a special line of more dedicated men formed behind them to force them into battle. This approach seemed to work, as they gradually pushed the Persians toward the top of Pasargadae. The Persians were soon reinvigorated, however, and pushed the Medes back in a great counterattack. The cause of this burst of energy came from the women, who rushed out and pleaded with them to get back to fighting. When this did not work they lifted their skirts up and mocked their courage, wondering if they intended to run all the way into their wombs. Properly ashamed, the men turned back to fight. It is also likely that the women joined the fray themselves. There is evidence that some groups in ancient Iran had female warriors. The women knew they would be massacred or enslaved if their side lost, so they might as well lend more support. The Persians drove the Medes all the way back to their camp. Also helping the Persian cause, many of the Medes, under Harpagus, abandoned the battlefield or defected. Astyages roared at his soldiers to make a stand, but they did not heed him and he himself fled.

Astyages returned to Ecbatana and impressed every man into another army. This was nowhere near as powerful as the one that had assailed Pasargadae and soon Cyrus’ army had another smashing victory. Astyages hid in the palace roof, but revealed himself when Oebares threatened to torture his family. Harpagus of course now came to Astyages and insulted him, asking how he felt to be a slave instead of a king. He did not get the satisfaction of reducing Astyages, however, as the king rightfully pointed out that he had passed up an opportunity to rule himself by giving power to Cyrus. Astyages was to spend his few remaining years imprisoned, albeit in luxurious conditions befitting a royal personage.

This Flemish painting depicts Cyrus presiding over a defeated Astyages.

Cyrus surprised many by his generous treatment of the defeated Medes. He did not massacre or enslave them and there was little in the way of looting. In fact he considered himself as much a ruler of the Medes as the Persians and took the throne.  Median nobles kept their estates, though of course official positions would have to be shared with the Persians. To legitimize his rule, he married Amytis. If the popular narrative of his childhood is to be believed, this would mean he married his aunt. This was the birth of the Persian empire. In fact it could be considered a Persian-Mede empire, symbolized on Nebuchadnezzar’s statue by two silver arms.

 

The Persian System

Cyrus did not often execute the rulers of defeated enemies. In fact he actually posted many of them within his own government or let them stay on as local leaders. As a result he gained the kings’ experience and wisdom, especially in how to preside over newly conquered territories. This also better ingratiated himself to subject peoples. Furthermore he sometimes allowed displaced captive peoples to return to their homelands, and even provided them the funds and other means to help them along. He largely borrowed from the Medes’ system of governance. Satraps (governors) ruled the pieces of his empire with a good deal of autonomy while the deposed Astyages’ eunuchs retained their positions as central administrators.

Cyrus could strike great terror into his enemies, but usually found it more practical to take advantage of his ever-expanding wealth and buy the allegiance of other peoples. Xenophon wrote, “He surpassed human beings still much more in giving the most gifts. Who else, by the magnitude of his gifts, is said to make people prefer himself to their brothers, to their fathers, and to their children? Who else was able to take vengeance on enemies who were a journey of many months in distance as was the king of the Persians? Who else, besides Cyrus, after overturning an empire, was called ‘father’ when he died?” Those bought by this wealth often became willing spies for Cyrus, reporting any disturbance in one of his far flung holdings.

Cyrus also did not seek to make all his subjects Persian. Some of his imperialist predecessors, such as the Assyrians and Babylonians, would erode the ethnic and cultural identities of conquered peoples by razing cities, moving populations around, and other means. Cyrus allowed his subjects to retain their national identities as long as they ultimately subordinated to Persian rule by supplying taxes and soldiers.

Cyrus also devised an incredibly effective communications system. He calculated how long a horse could go without breaking down and then spaced out a series of posts. Mounted messengers could relay messages to each other at top speed without wearing any of their animals out. Cyrus’ future actions suggest an empire-building mindset, but in his early reign he focused primarily on re-consolidating Mede and Persian lands He was keen to make treaties with his most powerful neighbors.

Cyrus’ court was firmly centered in Ecbatana and later Babylon. However he desired a capital in his Persian homeland. He chose Pasargadae, the sight of the victory that launched him into power. Construction began in 547 BC. It was to be situated on a mountain, meaning that in the future archaeologists would find its ruins and artifacts without having to dig up the ground. Reflecting Cyrus’ polyglot empire, the structures that arose over the next decades showed characteristics of Greek, Assyrian, and Babylonian architecture and craftsmanship, including the various human-headed winged animals common in ancient Middle-Eastern art. Of course Cyrus also planned out a large, well-irrigated garden. As it turned out, Cyrus would not live to see his grand vision’s completion.

Citadel of Pasargadae

The remains of a tomb for
Cyrus' father Cambyses.

As construction began, Cyrus’ personal life experienced a couple shocks. His political wife Amytis wished to see Astyages her father. Oebares, his right hand man, collected the deposed king to see her. Out of a sense of personal revenge or the belief that the break of Astyages’ house arrest would endanger his liege’s reign, he instead forced him into the wilderness. The eunuch Petisacas carried out the deed and the former ruler of the Medes succumbed to exposure, thirst, and starvation. Amytis learned what happened and had Petisacas brought to her. She had him killed, but not before excruciating torture. Cyrus promised Oebares he would protect him. Oebares was not sure his friendship would protect him from Amytis’ incessant demands. He opted to go out on his own terms, wandering into the wilderness to die the same way as Astyages. Thus Cyrus lost his closest friend (a less tragic account claims that Oebares actually died in one of Cyrus’ many battles). This came on the eve of Cyrus’ two other great conquests.

Bibliography

Abbott, Jacob. Cyrus the Great. New York: Harpers, 1904.

“Cyrus Cylinder,” https://www.livius.org/sources/content/cyrus-cylinder/cyrus-cylinder-translation/.

Dando-Collins, Stephen. Cyrus the Great: Conqueror, Liberator, Anointed One. Nashville: Turner Publishing Company, 2020.

Editors of Time-Life Books. Persians: Masters of Empire. Time-Life Books, 1995.

Gill, Anton. The Rise and Fall of Babylon: Gateway of the Gods. New York: Metro Books, 2008.

Macaulay, G.C (translated). The History of Herodotus Vol. I. London: Macmillan and Co.: 1914.

“Nabonidus Cylinder,” https://www.livius.org/sources/content/nabonidus-cylinder-from-sippar/; Editors, 54-55.

“Verse Account of Nabonidus,” https://www.livius.org/sources/content/anet/verse-account-of-nabonidus/

Xenophon (translated by Walter Miller). Cyropoaedia. Harvard University Press, 1914.

Zarghamee, Reza. Discovering Cyrus: The Persian Conqueror Astride the Ancient World. Washington, D.C.: Mage Publishers, 2014.