Okay History: St. Mark's Expedition (March 3-6, 1865)

Even very late in the Civil War, after the Confederate Army of Tennessee ceased to be a formidable force, all the vital Southern ports had fallen, and William Tecumseh Sherman’s army was ravaging its way north to squash Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia between himself and Ulysses S. Grant’s Army of the Potomac, fighting still erupted in less prioritized theatres of the war. One such battle occurred in Western Florida, truly a sideshow of the war. A relatively tiny affair, the Battle of Natural Bridge nevertheless has gained attention for being one of the last battles of the war and one of only a mere handful of notable clashes in Florida.

Florida’s Little War

Even well into 1865, the war in Florida remained virtually the same. The Union Army, assisted by the navy’s steamships, launched various raids into Confederate Florida. Because Florida was not a priority, there was no attempt at a decisive push and the Confederacy remained alive if somewhat besieged. Occasionally there was a deviation from this pattern and it was soon to occur thanks to two small, but concerning actions.

In the north, Major Edmund C. Weeks, who had just transferred into the Army from the Navy, led 250 men of the 2^nd Florida Cavalry our of Cedar Keys on a raid towards a railroad bridge on the Suwannee River. However, Confederate General Sam Jones was alerted to his movements and sent General William Miller, with his own 2^nd Florida Cavalry as well as some reserves, to block Weeks’ path to Newmansville. At the same time another small Confederate force under Captain J. Dickison moved to get into Weeks’ rear. Instead he hit Weeks at Station 4 of the Florida Railroad on the 13^th. As the indecisive skirmish went on, Weeks learned of Miller’s approach and ordered a full withdrawal to Cedar Keys.[1]

Elsewhere, much further south, the Confederate “Cow Cavalry” suspected that the Federals at Fort Myers in Lee Country were planning to leave. The Cow Cavalry, officially designated as the Florida Special Cavalry, consisted of Floridian cowboys who, thanks to their vital role in supplying Confederate troops with beef, were exempt from regular army service. This unit had been specifically created to fight of Federal raids from Fort Myers.[2]

Fort Myers from Leslie's Illustrated (https://www.news-press.com/story/news/local/amy-williams/2014/06/15/field-notes-amy-williams/10521403/)

In 1865 Fort Myers was chiefly garrisoned by part of the 2^nd United States Colored Troops. These black soldiers created some friction with the white Unionist refugees who congregated around the fort. However, the proved themselves in minor skirmishes such as a raid on Tampa and further aggravated local Confederates with their emancipation of slaves.[3] In Early February some of the Federal soldiers moved out on detachment duties, and the fort’s supplies were low. Colonel Charles J. Munnerlyn, commander of the Cow Cavalry, saw this as the moment to finally get rid of the pesky Federal outpost. Munnerlyn chose Major William Footman and 275 cattlemen soldiers to make the attack.[4]

The attack came on February 20. Footman’s men surprised a laundry detail, capturing a few Union soldiers. However, they opened fire. This killed one black soldier, but also alerted the fort’s current commander, Captain James Doyle, to the enemy advance. Footman tried to get Doyle to surrender, but the Federals used the time to fortify their position instead. The following battle was an hours-long slugfest involving carbines, artillery, and muskets. As darkness came Footman withdrew. One article on the fight lists about 40 Confederate casualties against 4 for the Union. The Cow Cavalry “returned to Fort Meade the most worn out and dilapidated looking set of soldiers you ever saw.”[5] This was the southernmost battle of the Civil War.

One the night of the 21^st, the Union steamer Alliance brought news of the attack on Fort Myers and the fight near Cedar Keys to General John Newton at Key West. This set the stage for the last significant action in Civil War Florida.[6]

Newton’s Last Campaign

General John Newton

General John Newton had started the war helping man Washington’s defenses. Late in 1862 he finally gained a field command and had his first true battle experience at Fredericksburg. He also fought at the Second Battle of Fredericksburg during the Chancellorsville Campaign and got command of the I Corps at Gettysburg after its commander John Reynolds was killed. He then transferred to General Sherman’s Army for the Atlanta Campaign. After Atlanta had fallen, Newton found himself commanding the District of West Florida.[7]

General John Newton considered the Confederate attacks at Cedar Keys and Fort Myers dangerous enough to require a reaction. With the help of Acting Rear Admiral C.R. Stribling, he sent reinforcements to assist with inland operations. The 99^th US Colored Troops were to relieve Fort Myers, but the Cow Cavalry had already stopped harassing the defenders there. Since they had already begun operations, Newton and Stribling decided instead upon an expedition towards the town of St. Marks. The infantry would be landed at Cedar Keys and as many gunboats as could be spared would head for the waters of St. Marks.[8]

Newspaper rumors indicated that General Newton, who had fought in several major battles throughout the war but with no particular credit of glory, planned not only to shut down St. Marks, but also to continue on and capture Tallahassee, one of only three Confederate state capitals to evade capture so far. This would certainly be a feather in his cap, but there is no confirming evidence from the official records of the war.[9] The Magnolia was to carry the bulk of the land force. These included three companies of the 2^nd Florida Cavalry and three companies of the 2^nd USCT. Newton was to guide the campaign from the Honduras.[10]

In total 16 ships assembled for the campaign. Commander R.W. Shufeldt, from the USS Proteus, took command of the naval contingent. As it happened fog descended on the waters, covering the ships. Now the captains struggled to navigate the waters, and as they got onto the St. Marks River the ships started running aground, seriously delaying operations.[11]

The Landing and Call to Action

The plan was this. On the night of March 3, sailors and part of the 2^nd Florida Cavalry were to land and secure a bridge on the East River. This little force was to headed by Major Edmund Weeks, and would included 60 of his cavalrymen and 30 sailors under Acting Ensign Whitney (personally selected by naval Captain Thomas Chatfield). Then the rest of the force would be disembarked. The expedition was to march to Newport, destroy the public buildings, then cross the St. Marks River. From there it would either strike the town of St. Marks or the railroad connecting it to Tallahassee. Either way, the Federals were to destroy any property that could aid the Confederacy. Any bridges or railways in the vicinity were to be destroyed and severed, breaking down Confederate communications and transportation. As the infantry and cavalry carried out the plan, the navy was to bombard and capture the batteries defending St. Marks.[12] Another small force, headed by a civilian named Mr. Green “landed near Shell Point, with order to proceed to the Ocklockonee Railroad bridge and burn it.”[13]

The landing was delayed by a heavy gale. Weeks’ raiding force did not get on land until midnight. His men marched to the bridge, arriving at 4 AM. Whitney’s sailors scattered the pickets and lost the chance for total surprise. The Confederates reacted quickly. At dawn 60 of their horsemen attacked Weeks, but fell back with light casualties (an estimate was “Killed several…and wounded three or four of them”). Weeks grew apprehensive and climbed up a nearby lighthouse. He saw no reinforcements coming. Then he got the news that the ships were having trouble making it to shore. In the dense fogs, ships were running aground in shallow sections. Four ships managed to make it into the St. Marks River, heading to Port Leon to land armed sailors. But these ran aground and got stuck. No naval contingent would take part in the land battle, and their absence threw off the plan. With more Confederates showing up, he abandoned the bridge and concentrated his men at the lighthouse.[14]

The quick Confederate response indicated that Newton’s movements were already known, and indeed they were. The delay gave Rebel officer Lieutenant-Colonel George W. Scott time to be aware of the Union landing and warn General Miller.[15] An interesting claim relating to this was made in the Confederate Veteran about half a century later. Supposedly Tom Bly, a deserter, got homesick and returned, only to face a firing squad. He saved his life by reporting the Federals’ approach. The veracity of this is questionable since the author, Gus H. West, made blatantly fanciful claims about later Battle of Natural Bridge’ casualties (like the Federals having enough dead that they formed barricades of corpses).[16]

Sam Jones

The sighting of a larger Union fleet was a special event for wartime Florida. All across West Florida men were urged to rush to action. “The militia was ordered out, and an unanimous and invincible response was made to the call. Every man and boy capable of bearing arms was at his post. Never, since the first commencement of the war, have the people exhibited a greater spirit.” Reinforcements came quickly, some from as far as 60 miles away.[17]

Among the volunteers were cadets of the West Florida Seminary. One Secessionist woman named Ruth recalled that “Every old man and young boy that could handle a gun went forth…The cadets of the college (boys of twelve), shouldered their muskets like veterans, and followed with the confidence of inexperience, which is usually more zealous than wise; but sometimes the one is needed more than the other.”[18] Actually, the boys allowed to answer the call ranged from ages 12 to 17. In a bit of dark humor each cadet needed parental permission to go into battle. About 25 got it.[19]

Elsewhere, militia of the 1^st Florida Reserve woke up on Sunday Morning and thoroughly inspected their weapons. They could hear “the booming of cannon. This was within itself was not so unusual, but in this instance it meant business, as was easily told by the regularity of the firing.” One older member of the Reserves said that they should stop with the inspection because “there was better fun ahead.”[20] Local railroads allowed for quick transport of the troops. Still, some of the men were so tired that when they had to march on foot, they would actually sleep-walk when on smooth ground. “…One would stumble and fall, not alone, mind you for he would bring the sleeping fellows ahead like ten pins.”[21]

One possible order of battle for the Confederates, with General William Miller commanding, was this: 3 companies of the 2^nd Florida Cavalry under Colonel Caraway smith, 3 companies of the 5^th Florida Cavalry under Lieutenant-Colonel George Scott, an artillery company under Captain Patrick Houston, Dunham’s Light Artillery, West Florida Seminary Cadets under Captain D.W. Gwynn, 7 companies of the 1^st Florida Reserves under Colonel J. Jacqueline Daniel, and several militia units.[22]

Saltworks at St. Mark's, one of the Federal targets
(https://stmarksrefuge.org/explore/kiosks/civil-war-salt-works/)

Path to Natural Bridge

On the morning of the 5^th, the rest of the Union expedition, mostly the black troops finally landed and made their way to assist Weeks at Newport.[23] General Newton led them to the East River bridge, only to discover that Scott’s 5^th Florida Cavalry had removed the planking.[24] The Confederates next set fire to the bride on the St. Marks River. They also set fire to several buildings in Newport to deny them to the Federals, unwittingly performing some of Major Weeks’ objectives for him. Among the architectural casualties were the foundry and saw and grist mills. Weeks rushed his men there at 11 AM. The Federals charged the bridge, only for Confederate fire from the west side to halt them. Weeks tried to break the stalemate with his two howitzers. One was set up to fire down the length of the bridge, the other to try to drive the Rebels out of their rifle pits with enfilading fire. The artillery failed to accomplish their goals, but two of their handlers earned Medals of Honor. John Mack (real name Michael Connelly), and Irish-born George Schutt both received their awards for their “coolness and determination” under enemy fire while moving their pieces into position. [25] It

The Federals finally achieved success when part of the 2^nd USCT forded the river and flanked the Confederates into retreating. They captured a 12-pounder Napoleon. The piece was to be used by the Federals for the rest of the fighting, though inconveniently it had been taken “without limber and caisson.” The 99^th USCT, which had previously performed engineering duties, worked to fix the bridge.[26]

With the failure to seize intact bridges, Newton’s expedition looked uncertain. Newton did not want to abandon the campaign, so he altered his plan. The men were to head to Natural Bridge, which “according to the assurances of the guides” was five miles away at best. He estimated his force would be there sometime on the morning of March 6. Weeks would keep his men at the other bridge at Newport to hold the Confederates’ attention. Then Newton’s larger column could take the Confederates in the flank.[27]

Unfortunately for Newton, Confederate Lieutenant-Colonel Scott had still been keeping a careful eye on Newton’s movements, and was aware that he was headed for Natural Bridge. The Confederates had advance notice and thus time to plan. Worse, the march to Natural Bridge was actually eight miles, giving the Floridians additional time to rush up reinforcements.[28] Weeks’ part of Newton plan largely succeeded. More Confederates showed up. Now they wanted to repair the damage they had done to the bridge, but the Federals managed to hold them off.[29]

But Newton remained unaware that he was going to face more than he could handle. Confederate movements were greatly helped by the railway. In fact Rebel general Sam Jones was already working to make sure that reinforcements were deposited as close as possible to Natural Bridge.[30]

Jones’ main subordinate, General Miller, first had to quell a panic in St. Marks. The town’s defenders were all set to burn their sole gunboat (Spray), 600 bales of cotton, and the powder magazine. Miller thought this greatly premature, and labeled it “cowardice.” He ordered them to stop and further disallowed any talk of surrender.[31] Throughout the upcoming fight, the St. Marks citizenry would remain on edge. Ruth wrote, “we could hear the report of the guns throughout the battle, and the hurrying to and fro of couriers had excited an anxiety not to be described, knowing, as we did, that a failure to repulse the invaders below would bring them to our doors.”[32]

Confederates from the first reenactment of the battle

The Natural Bridge

Miller hurried to Natural Bridge, and Confederate positions began to take shape. The breastworks were made of the usual wooden planks, boards, and dirt, but also bayonets, frying pans, and other unusual ingredients.[33] Miller positioned his troops with excellence. They formed a concave line, both flanks anchored on the river and Natural Bridge in the center. Any Federal advance would receive fire not just from the front, but roughly into its flanks. The Gadsen Grays positioned on the far left, with Dunham’s Battery in support. Colonel Samuel Love’s militia were next in line.

The West Florida Seminary Cadets faced the bridge head-on in the center, but were positioned further back as a guard for Dunham’s Battery (understandably, Miller didn’t want to throw these youths into a fight). The 5^th Florida Cavalry was to the right and south of the Cadets, with Captain Houston’s Battery in support. Final Colonel Daniel’s Reserves formed the far right.[34]

A much more recent photo of some of the terrain at the battlefield (https://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war/battles/natural-bridge)

The Natural Bridge was so named because it was in fact a thin strip of land rather than a manmade bridge. It was 40 yards wide, and all five artillery pieces concentrated on this area, turning it into a hot zone. Between the Confederates and the awaited enemy were “sloughs, ponds, marshes, and thickets” that would seriously hamper any attempt at a concentrated assault. Hickory, oak, and cypress trees formed a thick amount of brush.[35]

General William Miller

The Confederates awaited Newton’s arrival. In one of his reports, Newton claimed that his force had started out with 893 men, but were down to around 500 by the time of the main fight. One analysis of the St. Mark’s Expedition gives a possible estimate of Confederate strength at 593, but it’s possible that up to 700 were present. Newton and Confederate General Sam Jones both estimated each other’s armies at 1,500 to 2,000 strong in number, with Newton making the further claim that 1,000 Georgians arrived later to bolster his foe. Newton noted that said Georgians were not included in an intercepted congratulatory message from Confederate General Sam Jones to his troops, but instead of seeing it as evidence of their non-existence, he concluded that he had simply failed to mention them.[36]

The Federals arrived close to 4 AM, unaware of just how formidable the Confederate position was. The details of the fight are hard to piece together chronologically, since overall descriptions generally stated there were three assaults without placing on which assault certain officers became casualties. Furthermore, individual soldiers’ accounts are difficult to place because they also fail to state on which assault an incident occurred. The battle began with the 2^nd USCT advancing on Confederate pickets. One of the Rebels wrote, “Pretty soon we heard men coming toward us in double quick time, we could hear the rattle of cartridge boxes and canteens.” The Floridians could hear the Union officers giving commands. The Federal troops pushed the Confederate pickets back. Then heavy fire from the Confederate right wing revealed that many more enemy soldiers were there. One of them, Joshua Frier, described the firing.

“…A sheet of fame, not solid, but rather more like lightning playing on the fringe of a cloud at night, ran fitfully up and down the crescent shaped line to our right for a few seconds, and then the artillery, eight or ten pieces, belched forth in rapid succession, long sheets of angry looking flame; while the rattle of the small arms, and the roar of the cannon seemed enough to paralyze.” The left wing was to hold their fire, but one youth “was so badly scared” that he fired anyways. Joshua Frier saw one of his comrades, Ellis, go down with a fatal stomach wound. Frier determined that the shot came from a clump of bushes and sure enough saw a Federal moving away from it. He fired and the soldier dropped, though Frier wasn’t sure if he had been hit or was ducking for cover.[37]

Newton paused his force and investigated a possible spot further south where his men could form the river. It turned out to be well-guarded, and not fordable. “Nothing now remained to do but to feel the enemy and ascertain whether or not a passage could be forced.”[38] Newton ordered Major Benjamin Lincoln the 2^nd USCT to lead three of his regiment’s companies on a frontal assault while Colonel Townsend led three others in a flanking movement to the right. Lincoln seemed aware of how difficult it would be, as his reply to Newton’s directive was, “I will try.”[39]

This was the second of three assaults, occurring around noon. Despite their heavy advantage, the Confederate artillerists did suffer some casualties. One man was hit in the arm, which later had to be amputated. A Captain Lee Butler was also wounded. A few others were hit, but the balls had been spent by the time they reached them, and the strikes could not be considered proper wounds.[40]

The 2^nd USCT gained made it to the west end of Natural Bridge, but could advance no further under heavy fire. Major Lincoln inspired his men to hold onto their dubious gain of ground, showing much bravery under the heavy enemy fire. His bravery cost him when a shell struck him. At some point a third assault was made, but with no better results.[41]

https://www.battlefields.org/learn/maps/battle-natural-bridge

On the Confederate side Colonel Caraway Smith arrived in the early afternoon with a battalion of the 2^nd Florida Cavalry. Miller had them extend his line. Over time,, Federal fire slackened. Suspecting an enemy withdrawal, Miler ordered Captain H.K. Simmons of the 2^nd Florida Cavalry to investigate and confirm the Union withdrawal. Simmons men came upon felled trees and a breastwork. Simmons boldly ordered a charge which resulted in his death, as it turned out Newton had formed his own line of entrenchments. However, Newton did not stay, choosing to retreat while the enemy was somewhat stymied.[42]

There were two factors that resulted in Newton’s decision to call off the expedition. First of all, Confederate resistance was too stout. With their numbers at least equaling the Federals’ it was nigh impossible for their line to be pierced. Secondly, Newton’s hope for armed sailors to land and come to his aid were quashed. The Federal fleet, which had struggled going along the St. Marks River, had already abandoned the plan to proceed further when they heard Newton had been blocked. Their commanders chose to withdraw rather than help.[43]

For such a small battle, casualties among the officers were high. On the Union side Colonel Townsend (2^nd USCT) was wounded, “but refused to quite the field until the fight was over.” Major Lincoln from the same regiment was not so lucky. He died of his wounds on March 9, though reportedly when informed of his likely demise he replied, “I am ready.” Another death was Second Lieutenant E. Carrington, one of Newton’s staff officers. Newton tried to gain promotions, even posthumously, for many of his officers.[44] Colonel Daniel became the highest profile Confederate casualty when his horse accidentally ran him into a tree.[45]

The victors investigated effects of the battle. Joshua Frier recorded, “Many trees of considerable size was cut down at various heights, the limbs and trunks of most of them seemed to have the [bark] stripped from them as by lightning.”[46] Another Confederate found “what I took to be a dead Negro, with his head on a nice cartridge box that had a broad shoulder strap to it; as I had been wanting just such a box I walked up & gave it a light pull, when the Negro held on to it with his hand and gave a groan…” The Rebel, perhaps spooked, let him be.[47]

The retreating Federals slowed the Confederates down by knocking timber trees across the road. This worked well, as there were no more exchanges of fire. Though it had opted not to continue down the St. Marks River, the Navy still lent a hand. 40 sailors landed and made it to the East River Bridge, holding it until the Army men could get back across. Once this was accomplished, they burned it down to prevent any Confederate pursuit. The ships withdrew and anchored near the light house.[48] The St. Marks Expedition provided the Confederacy with one of its final victories, if not a major one.

Union losses were as follows. The 2^nd Florida Cavalry suffered 1 man killed, 2 wounded, and 13 missing, overall 16. The 2^nd USCT endured 10 men killed, 47 wounded, and 1 missing for a total of 58. The 99^th USCT got it worse with 9 killed, 39 wounded, and 24 missing for a total of 72. One of Newton’s staff officers was killed and another wounded. Complete losses were 148, with 21 killed, 89 wounded, and 38 missing. Thankfully most of the wounded, who as blacks were more likely to suffer harsh treatment, were successfully brought along on the retreat. Confederate losses were put at 33 killed and wounded, then 26 with 3 killed and 23 wounded.[49]

Explaining Failure and Praising Floridians

Newton first blamed the St. Marks Expedition failure on a refugee who spoiled his plans, perhaps the deserter mentioned by Gus West decades later in Confederate Veteran. Such blame, however, is probably misplaced as Newton and Stribling’s plans were loose and allowed for multiple decisions based on circumstances. He did come to credit his movement with diverting enemy attention from Union foray from Pensacola. Newton admitted that several targeted bridges remained intact, but did note that several important enemy buildings were destroyed (albeit by the Confederates themselves).[50] Indeed, Confederate reports greatly lamented the loss of these buildings, with the destruction of the mill being labeled a “calamity.” During a truce, one officer learned that the loss of the salt-works sent the price of salt from an already high $30 a bushel to $50.[51]

A month later, Newton was still finding reasons for the failure of the St. Mark’s Expedition. He claimed that if the infantry and landed between St. Mark’s and Newport, and had the navy sent a few hundred sailors to fight alongside them, victory would have been assured. He believed the enemy only won with the impregnability of their Natural Bridge position and the fictional Georgia reinforcements.[52]

For the Secessionists civilians and troops, this was a large battle and better yet a victory. Praises flowed profusely. Much was made of the militia by General Sam Jones. “The conduct of the militia in the recent affair has shown that for actually service they are equally available with the regular Confederate troops. They exhibited as much coolness and courage as veterans, and the prompt action of all, even of those who were not in the engagement, contributed to make a display of force that disheartened the enemy and probably induced an earlier retreat than would have taken place merely from the result of the fighting.” He then added, “If the people of Georgia had turned out to oppose Sherman as the Floridians have in the battle fought at Natural Bridge, he never could have reached Savannah…we have no fears of the Yankees. Let them do their worst.”[53]

This tale has come under scrutiny in recent years. A 2017 article in the Tallahassee Democrat pointed out that while the militia were widely called to action, only a small portion joined General Miller at the actual site of battle. Bruce Graetz, senior curator of the Museum of Florida History, was quoted as pointing out that regular Confederate troops formed most of the defensive line.[54]

The victorious Confederates marched to Tallahassee and arrived on the 9^th. Governor John Milton gave them a congratulatory speech in the House of Representatives. Frier recalled, “He passed on among the other companies, and some of them called on him for a speech which he gave them; he gave our regiment the honor of the day before, and used so many eloquent expressions of praise for us, until I for once almost felt proud of being a soldier. I thought him one of the best speakers I ever listened to, and a very smart man; but when the Confederacy was overthrown a short while after this and he ended his existence with a pistol ball, I changed my opinion of him.”[55] Frier was referencing Milton’s suicide at the end of the war, which displayed his hardcore Secessionist beliefs.

Not all Confederates were praised. A couple had deserted earlier to join the Federals, only to fall into their former comrades’ hands. They were tried and executed. Jacob Gardner, an artillerist, was very affected by this incident. “One of them stood as a statue, but the other seemed to be affected considerably. “They were the first deserters I ever saw shot. Their eyes were bandaged and their hands tied behind them to a stake. It was a hard sight, but just.”[56]

The St. Marks Expedition, chiefly its Battle of Natural Bridge, are commonly mentioned as one of the last military operations of the Civil War. The enthusiasm of the Confederates in Florida stands in stark contrast to the dire situation of the fledgling nation elsewhere. Indeed, all the victory accomplished was boost local spirits and give Tallahassee the honor of being one of two capitals never to be captured by the Union Army. A month later, the Confederacy would suffer a string of major defeats that far outweighed any triumph in a sideshow theater.

Sources

Boyd, Mark F. “The Joint Operations of the Federal Army and Navy near St. Marks, March 1865.” Florida Historical Quarterly 29, No. 2 (1950).

Ensley, Gerald. “Battle of Natural Bridge Myths Endure.” https://www.tallahassee.com/story/news/2017/03/01/battle-natural-bridge-myths-endure/98525912/.

“Excerpt from Joshua Hoyet Frier’s Civil War Memoir.” https://www.floridamemory.com/learn/classroom/learning-units/civil-war/documents/frier/naturalbridge.php.

“Excerpt from Recollections of General William Miller regarding the Battle of Natural Bridge.” https://www.floridamemory.com/learn/classroom/learning-units/civil-war/documents/miller/.

Gardner, Jacob. “Battle of Natural Bridge, Fla.” Confederate Veteran 17 (1909): 220.

“Medal of Honor Recipients: Civil War (M-Z).” https://web.archive.org/web/20090223063700/http://www.history.army.mil/html/moh/civwarmz.html.

“Natural Bridge.” https://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war/battles/natural-bridge.

“The Reminiscences of Captain Thomas Chatfield.” https://churbuck.com/the-reminiscences-of-captain-thomas-chatfield/part-10-the-reminiscences-of-captain-thomas-chatfield/.

“Ruth in Florida Breezes.” https://www.floridamemory.com/learn/classroom/learning-units/civil-war/documents/ruth/.

Solomon, Irvin D. “Southern Extremities: The Significance of Fort Myers in the Civil War.” The Florida Historical Quarterly (October 1993): 129-152.

Trudeau, Noah Andre. Like Men of War: Black Troops in the Civil War, 1862-1865. Boston: Little, Brown, & Company, 1998.

Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1964.

West, H. Gus. “Battle of Natural Bridge.” Confederate Veteran 27 (1919): 475.

[1] Mark F. Boyd, “The Joint Operations of the Federal Army and Navy near St. Marks, March 1865,” (Florida Historical Quarterly 29, No. 2), 96-97.

[2] Irvin D. Solomon, “Southern Extremities: The Significance of Fort Myers in the Civil War,” The Florida Historical Quarterly (October 1993), 144-145; Boyd, “Joint Operations,” 96.

[3] Solomon, “Southern Extremities,” 145-147.

[4] Solomon, “Southern Extremities,” 147-148; Boyd, “Joint Operations,” 96.

[5] Solomon, “Southern Extremities,” 149-151.

[6] OR XLIX, 58.

[7] Warner, Ezra J. Warner, Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders, (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 1964), 345.

[8] Boyd, “Joint Operations,” 97-98.

[9] Trudeau, Like Men of War, 367.

[10] Boyd, “Joint Operations,” 98; OR XLIX, 58.

[11] Boyd, “Joint Operations,” 98-99.

[12] Boyd, “Joint Operations,” 99-100; OR XLIX, 70; “The Reminiscences of Captain Thomas Chatfield,” https://churbuck.com/the-reminiscences-of-captain-thomas-chatfield/part-10-the-reminiscences-of-captain-thomas-chatfield/.

[13] OR XLIX, 70.

[14] OR XLIX, 59-60, 70; Boyd, “Joint Operations,” 100-101, 105.