Cyrus the Great: A Short Bio (part 2 of 2)

 

An Enemy and an Ally

 The fledgling Persian Empire was to face its first serious challenge. The Lydian kingdom, situated in western Anatolia, contained extensive gold fields, so much so that the name of its ruler King Croesus remains heavily associated with wealth. As with the Persians, knowledge of the Lydians has been almost exclusively channeled through Greek sources, to the point that they can be confused with Greeks themselves. Over 35 years earlier, the Lydians and Medes were embroiled in a massive war. On May 28 in 585 BC, a solar eclipse suddenly came and frightened the two sides into a truce, with Astyages marrying the daughter of the Lydian king. Now, with Astyages dead and the Medes subsumed into a new empire, Croesus saw an opportunity to finish the war that the gods had seemingly put to an end (Herodotus makes the alternate claim that he sought to avenge Astyages, who was his brother-in-law). He believed that Cyrus would not be ready to repel a Lydian invasion, and was emboldened in his plans by the Oracles of Apollo. These prophets had divined that he would destroy an empire.

Golden coin of Croesus.

Though seemingly encouraged by the gods, Croesus bettered his odds through alliances with his neighbors. He gained the support of Babylon, Egypt, and Sparta, a grand alliance that threatened to destroy the new Persian Empire. These were defensive alliances, meaning they would not march into Persian territory with him, but they would come to his aid if the roles of attacker and defender were reversed. Croesus struck for Pteria, a city near the Black Sea. Cyrus responded quickly and effectively. To ensure that his army was well supplied, he purchased thousands of camels from the Arabs and gave each regiment of men its own baggage train.

Top Ten Greek Gods and Goddesses

 No gods are more well known to the western world than those of the Greeks. Greek mythology is extensive, with hundreds if not thousands of myths having been passed down over the centuries. It’s like the fictional universes of Marvel or DC, with a large cast of characters who manage to connect to each other in a complicated web of tales. Many phrases have been derived from it: “caught in a net," “Pandora’s box," “caught between a rock and a hard place," “Herculean effort." Its gods, though no longer worshipped, show up in many places. Sea kings and mermen with tridents come from Poseidon and lesser sea deity Triton. Speedy characters and icons such as DC hero the Flash wear winged shoes or helmets like Hermes. The idea of God striking people with lightning is a leftover from Zeus. These are my top ten Greek gods, and while there were many to choose from, it was easy to find my favorites since most of the very colorful characters are confined to the twelve Olympians, the elite circle of the pantheon.

10th. Hermes

Hermes has the role of the messenger of the Gods. His functions for humanity make a long list. He is the god of travel, trade, speech, sports, borders, searching, and even thieves, and guides the dead to the underworld. Like many of the Olympians, he is the son of Zeus, his particular mother being mountain nymph Maia. Although important in an official capacity to both the gods and mankind, Hermes also has the reputation of a trickster. One well known example is when, while still in his infancy, he decided to steal Apollo’s prized herd of cattle. He reversed the hooves of their feet, so when he led them away it looked as if they went in the opposite direction. Apollo was angry and confused, but did eventually find his half-brother and bring him to Zeus for trial. Zeus found the whole affair hilarious and rather than punish Hermes simply ordered him to return the stolen cattle.

Cyrus the Great: A Short Bio (part 1 of 2)

 

The Ancient Persian (or Achaemenid) Empire dominated the Middle East from roughly 550 to 330 BC. Compared to its predecessors in the region, it lasted a long time and came to be seen as a model for empire-building, even by its eventual destroyer Alexander the Great. It was founded by another “The Great,” Cyrus the Great. Cyrus is one of the more highly regarded ancient rulers. Many respect him for his, by the standards of the time, generosity and mercy towards conquered peoples. He rarely massacred entire populations and did not often resort to mass enslavement either. He let local rulers stay on as part of his administration, creating a soft rule over his holdings. Cyrus is also a legend among many in Iran, as he was the one who catapulted their Persian ancestors to the status of a great civilization. Judaism and Christianity alike also have a positive image of him as he allowed the captive Hebrews to return to the Levant and rebuild their cities (though as it turns out there is a caveat on this matter).

Despite his importance to world history, we know very little about Cyrus. What has been passed down is largely suspect. Little contemporary records exist from the time of his life and most of these, such as the Nabonidus Verse Account and Cyrus Cylinder, are obvious pieces of propaganda from a time when people did not have a widely circulated press, much less the internet, to seek out the truth. Most ancient sources are actually Greek histories. These were written decades to hundreds of years after the events of Cyrus’ life. They were based on Persian historical legends and orally transmitted hearsay, and then filtered through Greek biases. The most popular Greek sources is Xenophon’s account of his time as a Greek mercenary in a Persian civil war. Xenophon related many tales he heard of Cyrus the Elder. Ironically it’s riddled with literary liberties and inaccuracies as well as the promotion of the author’s Greek beliefs. Concerning the Cyrus the Great’s characteristics, Xenophon falsely depicts him embracing and spouting Socratic philosophy while also worshipping the Greek pantheon of gods and goddesses. The most respected source is Herodotus’ Histories. The father of historians, Herodotus carefully weighted various accounts and tried to piece together the most likely narrative.

Christopher Ellet's Gladiators & Beast Hunts: Arena Sports of Ancient Rome

Epplett, Christopher. Gladiators & Beast Hunts: Arena Sports of Ancient Rome. South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Military, 2016.

Gladiators & Beast Hunts is one of my many impulse buys while searching through the Half-Price Books store. In it Christopher Epplett, an ancient history teacher who specializes in Ancient Rome’s sporting events, looks at the origins, purpose, and demise of gladiatorial combat and the venationes, the beast hunts. He decides to not cover the chariot races, more interested in the violent sports and why the Romans were so enamored by them. He also has a couple chapters focusing on how the games were supplied and held and how certain gladiators (and even some animals) achieved celebrity status. Gladiators & Beast Hunts is a fairly short book, more along the lines of an extended master’s thesis, and should make for a brisk yet highly informative read.

Epplett traces the origins of the gladiatorial games to Etruscan and early Roman funerary customs. When a wealthy man or woman died, the other rich spectators were treated to a gladiatorial duel. The Venatio (beast hunt) also originated as the sport of the elite. The animals in the games were slaughtered rather than captured. Over time these violent spectacles were introduced to the common Roman masses. By the later republic they became an essential part of Roman life.

The Battle of Mill Springs Part III: General Thomas' First Victory

 

The Federal Counter-Attack

General George Thomas arrived to find Manson’s two regiments and Wolford’s Cavalry fighting an assault from a cornfield, their right about to be overlapped. Wolford rode up to him and shouted, “General, the men in your front are nearly out of ammunition!” Thomas responded, “Tell them to hold their line; that McCook is coming up on their right.” He furthermore made sure that the 9^th Ohio, his best trained regiment, would anchor the critical right flank. The 9^th Ohio consisted of German immigrants who had served in European armies. Colonel Robert McCook, their brigade commander, had in fact once personally created and led their regiment. He believed that a unit made up entirely of German military veterans would be among the best in the army. General George McClellan, who managed the Ohio and western Virginia theater at the start of the war, agreed and once stated that the 9^th Ohio was the best he had “seen in either Europe or America.” In addition to advancing the infantry, Thomas masterfully redeployed his artillery. The general hurried forward Captain Kenny’s battery and placed it on the left of the 4^th Kentucky. Kenny’s gunners “opened an efficient fire.” The bulk of the 10^th Indiana replenished its ammunition. Now Thomas sent them to the left of the 4^th Kentucky.[1]

The timing of Thomas’ arrival contributed to a controversy that arose after the battle. In his report Thomas said he arrived to find the 10^th Indiana standing close to their camp while the 4^th Kansas was fighting at the front. Colonel McCook negatively reported that the 2^nd Minnesota found its path obstructed by scattered Indianans, all in need of ammunition. By contrast Manson claimed that the 10^th Indiana held the enemy in check for an hour. He got this information from Kise, colonel of the 10^th Indiana. Because Kise’s report contradicted other regimental reports, he actually faced a court-martial for falsifying his report. Veterans of the 10^th Indiana, their own honor at stake, denied these accusations. Their regimental history of course made the boast that “for an hour and a quarter the regiment fought and no help from the rear.” Stuart W. Sanders, who wrote the sesquicentennial history of the battle, offered an explanation as to why the reports contradicted each other. He believes that other regiments tried to prop up their own roles in the fight while also evading criticism for not reinforcing Kise earlier. He points out that letters from soldiers right after the battle, as well as enemy reports, clearly established that the 10^th Indiana held Zollicoffer at bay for at least 45 minutes. My limited research for this post leads me to agree, as several Confederate reports clearly mentioned that their advances were checked by the 10^th Indiana. Also in the Hoosiers’ defense they were in desperate need of ammunition and in little condition to be holding the front at that point. They were close to camp because that was where more ammunition could be found.[2]