When
it comes to the Civil War in Indian Territory, historians tend to gloss over or
sometimes ignore the events between the Battle of Pea Ridge and the expedition
of summer 1863. However there were many important developments in the territory
during this period that saw momentum shift continually between the Union and
Confederacy and also escalated various forms of violence within the territory.
These events were also influenced by actions across the border in Missouri and
Arkansas. This series covers three periods of Indian Territory, 1862. The first
section covers the plight of Indian refugees in Kansas and the attempt to
establish a strong Union presence in the summer of 1862. The second centers
around the Battle of Newtonia, which was actually in Missouri, but saw heavy
involvement by Indian troops. The third covers the Federal incursion of late
1862, which finally established a strong Union presence in the territory.
The Refugee
Crisis
In the early days of the war in 1861, the Confederacy obtained alliances with most of the Indian peoples in Indian Territory. The issue was that, like the borderlands to the east, the inhabitants were deeply divided as to what course they should take. While most of the leadership sided with the Confederacy (they shared many cultural traits such as slavery), many favored the Union and others did not want to get involved at all. In a series of battles, Confederate Indians, backed by white troops from neighboring states, assaulted pro-Union Indians. Thousands of refugees escaped to Kansas in the midst of winter. The suffering exiles wanted to get back to their homes. Many within the Federal government and army were keen on seeing that happen.
At
the end of 1861 President Abraham Lincoln created the Department of Kansas. He
angered and alienated firebrand and leading Kansas jayhawker James M. Lane by
choosing Major General David H. Hunter instead. Lane personally went to
Washington and pressured Lincoln to give him authority over the department.
Lincoln refused, but attempted to salve his feelings by giving the go ahead for
a longtime scheme of the Jayhawkers. This was the invasion of Texas from the
North. Naturally, to get to the Lone Star State they would have to cleave their
way through Indian Territory.[1]
Lane
was still not satisfied and continued to raise trouble. Lincoln finally moved
Hunter over to a coastal department along the Lower Atlantic Seaboard, but
still would not give Lane the command. He was simply too controversial a figure
after his many violent raids into Missouri. Still, Lincoln practically handed
him power by allowing him to choose the Departmental commander himself. Lane
chose one of his allies, Brigadier General James G. Blunt. Blunt was an
aggressive officer and always spoiled for a fight. This made him very popular
among the rough frontiersmen that would make up his various commands across the
war.[2]
 |
| James G. Blunt was a physician who first experienced violence as an Abolitionist in Bleeding Kansas. |
Lane and Blunt’s plans of a southward invasion lined up with the plight of Unionist Indians. These refugees resided in southern Kansas, in crowded camps where sickness and starvation ran rampant. The winter of early 1862 was particularly brutal. The Federal government and Department of Kansas were not prepared to handle the large influx of needy people. Thus many slept on the cold, hard ground, with prairie grass “their only protection from the snow. For shelter they had to strap rags and other forms of cloth across sticks. Many a toe was frozen and lost. In these crowded conditions food also got cross-contaminated, so that the choice became starvation or disease. The Army tried to help out, but their donations always fell severely short. They stopped altogether in mid-February.[3]
The
plan was to return these refugees to Indian Territory, where hopefully they
would be better fed and clothed. Then they would no longer be a serious burden
on Kansas or the Federal government. Seeing a potential source of new recruits,
as well as needing a force to protect the returning exiles, Blunt sought and
received authorization to raise Indian regiments. James Lane and several
officials continually promised the refugees that they would return them to
their homes, and talked up the formation of the regiments. However, weeks
passed without any development. Indians were confused as to why the Federal
Government, supposedly so powerful, could be so slow in following up on its
promises.
As
it turned out several ranking military figures, including General Henry
Halleck, were disinterested in organizing Indian regiments and dithered on
relaying orders from Washington that would have set in motion the organization
and armament of these units. It took pressure from Washington, through General
Lorenzo Thomas, to finally get the regiments organized and equipped. The
officers in Kansas got to work. Fort Leavenworth held a large stockpile of
Indian Rifles, long-barreled rifles that fired round bullets. The Indians
actually tended to prefer them over the regular Army muskets. The Indian Rifles
were good for fighting amidst woods and timber, where they could rest the
barrel against a tree or log.[4]
 |
| Indian Home Guard soldiers (illustration from an Osprey Military book) |
The Confederates had recently lost the
Battle of Pea Ridge. This defeat enabled Union forces to gain a strong foothold
in Arkansas. Worse, Major General Earl Van Dorn took almost all the white
troops east across the Mississippi. This dangerously exposed much of the
Trans-Mississippi to invasion. Following Pea Ridge and its strategic fallout,
General Albert Pike, commander of Indian forces and the one who had made the
treaties with their chiefs, anticipated a Federal invasion. He believed he
lacked the manpower to successfully challenge a Union thrust, and thus centered
his line closer to the Texas border. From there he hoped to harry any enemy
incursions and force them to stretch out their supply lines.[5]
Albert Pike (above left) was content to sit still at
Fort McCulloch in the Choctaw Nation. In fact he openly defied Arkansan General
Thomas Hindman, the new commander of the Trans-Mississippi Department. Hindman had
just learned, to his shock, that he practically had no army with which to defend
his home state. He thus implored Pike to send all his remaining white troops to
Little Rock, Arkansas, and move his Indians near the border to block raids from
Kansas. Pike felt that this was a violation of the treaties he had made, which stated
that the Indians would not be obligated to fight outside their own lands.
Colonel John Drew, a Cherokee and relative of President John Ross, also stayed
still, interested only in protecting his people against invasion. For the
moment it was only Colonel Stand Watie, another Cherokee, and newly assigned
Colonel Douglas H. Cooper (above right), who were doing any real fighting.[6]
John Ross, President of the Cherokee Nation,
was likewise frustrated with the Confederacy, and also at Pike. Stand Watie’s
scouts brought back the sinister report that a Federal buildup was occurring across
the Kansas border. An invasion at this time would be dreadful. The Indian
troops were poorly clothed and still waiting for their pay from the Confederate
government. There were almost no white troops to bolster their weak defenses,
and Ross was angry with Pike for centering what he had in the southern part of
the territory instead of protecting the Cherokee Nation. The Cherokees resided
in the northeastern part of the territory, bordering Union Kansas and the
warzones in Arkansas and Missouri. If there was any invasion, it would come
through here.[7]
Douglas H. Cooper a former Federal
Indian Agent, had assumed command over the Indian regiments in the Territory.
So far he had no major battles under his belt. He had Stand Watie and his
Cherokees maintain a presence in the northeastern corner of his command. Watie
had several small skirmishes with the Federals. On May 31, at Neosho, Missouri,
he and a Missouri State Guard contingent under Colonel John Coffee surprised a
camp of Union militia cavalry. The militia tried to make a stand, but quickly
fell apart and ran. Coffee’s mounted men chased them down and killed 10 before
breaking off. Later on June 8, Colonel Charles Doubleday and his 2nd
Ohio Cavalry attempted to disperse a gathering of Confederates at Cowskin
Prairie near Grand River. Once again Watie was with Colonel Coffee. Doubleday
sent a battalion of cavalry to flank Watie’s camp from the south while he moved
his artillery and infantry through the woods to hammer him from the north. At
night, the Federal artillery bombarded the camp. Doubleday’s plan was to send
the Indians running into a trap. However, Watie and Coffee skillfully navigated
the woods and slipped away. While they suffered no losses (neither did the
Federals), they did lose hundreds of horses and cattle.[8]
Doubleday’s
foray was more than just a one-off assault. He had been scouting out the area
as the Indian Expedition came together. Colonel William Weer, the former Attorney General of Kansas, was to command this mix of
white and Indian troops. Doubleday advised him to move quickly before the
Confederates in the area united their forces. Weer was eager to heed his words
and started the expedition forward. A pair of Indian Agents came along to
analyze the situation in the territory, report their findings, and see how they
could help the Indians (likely with an eye to making them supporters of the
Union). A Reverend Evan Jones also came along with a confidential message for
Cherokee leader John Ross.[9]
The first Federal incursion into Indian Territory was on the way, and
Confederate resistance was divided and in some cases unaware of what was
coming.
Locust Grove
Weer learned that Watie was at Spavinaw Creek, with the other Confederates 20 miles south at Locust Grove. Weer planned to hit the separated Watie first and then take the rest of the enemy. The 6th Kansas Cavalry rode ahead to the creek. When they got there Watie had already gone south.[10] The Confederate Indians were soon aware of the Federal invasion. Small groups of them would appear along the line of march, prompting brief chases. One early history by a Union veteran claimed that they almost captured Watie “several times.” The pursuers were said to be so close that they would empty their revolvers at the number one Confederate Indian. At one point they came upon a house where he was dining with a friend. Alerted by his pickets, Watie and his small escort mounted their horses and sped into the hills. With the Kansans right on his tail, Watie selected two companies and halt the chase with an ambush. The foremost Federals rode right into a hail of bullets from pistols and shotguns. Though on the run, Watie’s inability to die or be captured added to his notoriety. The next day, during a thunderstorm, a private in the 9th Kansas Cavalry thought he could hear the Indian’s laughter amid the crackling booms.[11]
 |
| Trading Card of Stand Watie |
Unable to bag Watie, Weer was still determined to get to Locust Grove and the Confederate gathering there. He gathered several detachments and headed there in a night march. His force included men from the 1st Indian, 9th Kansas Cavalry, 10th Kansas Infantry, and Allen’s Battery. In total he had between 200 and 300 men.[12] Locust Grove was named for the local post office. It is situated 2 miles east of Grand River and 30 miles north of Tahlequah. The terrain, at least at the time of the battle, was of a “bushy nature” with many trees. There, Colonel James Clarkson, a former officer in the Missouri State Guard, commanded about 300 mostly Missourian men. They guarded an encampment with wagons.[13]
After
“traveling rapidly all night,” the 10th Kansas reached their target
at sunrise. An early history stated that Weer’s scouts arranged for him to
arrive at just this moment, as it would enable him to surprise Clarkson’s men while
still having enough light to conduct a battle.[14]
After surprising and capturing some of the enemy pickets, the Federals
surrounded the encampment, where most of the men were still sleeping. They
opened fire and Clarkson’s men ran about in confusion, still in their night
clothes. They made for an escape. A good number got out before the Federals
tightened their coils and forced them into a fight.[15]
Weer
deployed his battery with the 10th Kansas as guard. He advanced his
other two detachments (1st Indian and 9th Kansas Cavalry).
Formations did not work here as the fighting occurred amidst bushes and trees.
“…Each participant was thrown more or less on his individual resources.” The
Union guns stayed silent. Weer reported that the battery section “was only
prevented from paying its respects to the enemy from fear of destroying our own
men, who were engaged with the enemy in the woods in scattered parties.” Amidst
the fray, one soldier in the 9th Kansas accidentally shot and killed
an Assistant Surgeon Holleday from the 1st Indian. Seeing their
situation as hopeless, numerous Confederates surrendered. Colonel Clarkson was
among them.[16]
The
battle was so brief that only the 1st Indian Home Guard and 9th
Kansas got to engage. The 10th Kansas and artillerymen had really
wanted to pitch in and were only kept in place “with difficulty.” Weer counted
30 Confederates killed (he built it up to 100 in his follow-up report) and 100
captured, along with “their entire baggage wagons mules, guns, ammunition,
tents, &c.” The wagons primarily held ammunition, clothes, food, and salt.
In theatre further east this would be an inconvenient occurrence. Out here in
Indian Territory it was a significant blow. Weer counted two of his men killed,
1 from the 1st Indian and 1 from the 9th Kansas. The next
day was of course the 4th of July. The victors headed back to Cabin
Creek and celebrated the holiday by dividing the captured clothes and food
among the accompanying refugees.[17]
The Expedition
Stalls
After
soaking in his victory, Weer advanced his army to Flat Rock. From there they
proceeded south to Fort Gibson. On July 14 the 6th Kansas Cavalry
under Major William Campbell pushed away the pickets there. From a handful of
prisoners they heard that the Confederates were concentrating south of the
Arkansas River. The next day Campbell and Weer entered the fort itself. The 6th
Kansas continued south to the Arkansas River to investigate the concentration.
There they had a near-bloodless skirmish with Confederates on the other side.[18].
Amidst
the successes of his force, Weer found himself having to control his Indian
soldiers. They wanted vengeance for what had happened to them and their
families over the previous winter. Weer said he had “great difficulty in
restraining the Indians with me from exterminating the rebels. A good deal of
property has been destroyed in spite of all my efforts.” Weer was also
overwhelmed by the sudden effects of his victory. He had just rapidly advanced
into the Cherokee Nation without any further reinforcements, and also had to
contend with the area’s unique political situation.[19]
 |
| President/Chief John Ross |
Weer detached a company of the 6th Kansas Cavalry and 50 Cherokees, under Captain H.S. Greeno, to Tahlequah, the capital of the Cherokee Nation. Greeno was to find President John Ross and get him to break off his alliance with the Confederacy. He encountered no resistance and arrived at the chief’s home. He called upon Ross to come to Weer’s camp and discuss the future course of the Cherokees. He wanted him to renounce his peoples’ allegiance to the Confederacy. Ross felt himself too old and ill to come out. Greeno accommodated him. Ross would stay at his home until proper Federal authorities arrived. His official status was as prisoner-of-war.
This
was to prevent him from backing a proclamation from Colonel Douglas Cooper.
Cooper was calling for recruits to repel a Federal invasion. They were to
gather at Fort Davis south of the Arkansas River. 500 Arkansans were reported to
have crossed into the territory already. Ross was actually welcoming of the
return of the Union to Indian Territory, but felt that he could not break his
word to the Confederacy. Greeno reported that, “The Chief seems very much
concerned about the situation of the people of his nation, and anxious that the
United States Government should send sufficient force here to protect them from
lawless bands that are daily threatening them, committing robberies and
murders. He is quite apprehensive of his own personal safety and the safety of
his family.”[20]
The
news of Weer’s advance as well as the crushing defeat at Locust Grove had a
tremendous effect on the leading Cherokee men. A group of them came with Greeno
back to Weer. As it happened they were officers of Colonel John Drew’s Pin
Cherokee regiment. These men had been much more reluctant than Watie’s faction
to ally with the Confederacy and saw an opportunity to switch sides. Greeno in
fact delivered a speech in which he listed the long string of Confederate defeats
throughout the first half of 1862. He promised that the U.S. government was not
vengeful and would welcome Cherokee support. When Greeno headed back to Weer,
he brought along 200 new Cherokee recruits.[21]
Weer
and his force settled in at Flat Rock, taking in further Cherokee recruits.
Weer organized these into a third Indian regiment and placed it under the
command of Colonel William Phillips (who had been an antislavery reporter in
Kansas). Colonel Furnas of the First Indian Regiment became commander of a now
three-regiment brigade. Furnas found his command frustrating, as many of the
Indians did not stick to the white man’s sense of discipline. At one point 180
Osages left to hunt buffalo. Furnas sent out a detachment to bring them back,
but Watie had gotten to them first. The Cherokees dispersed them, capturing 14.
The
Federals waited for a promised supply train from Fort Scott. After two weeks it
still had not shown up, and supplies were running low. Worse, the weather had
grown oppressively hot and dry, to the point that prairie grass easily caught
on fire. Weer seemed to lose his mind (the accusation was that he got drunk in
these desperate conditions), refusing to either advance further or withdraw.
Fearing what would happen if they continued to linger, the regimental
commanders gathered together. They resolved that, as they were 160 miles from
their base of supply and the wagons were not arriving, they would arrest
Colonel Weer and put Colonel Frederick Salomon, a veteran Prussian officer who
had led German troops in a couple of the 1861 Missouri battles, in charge. They
headed back north, under the agreement they would stop if they happened to come
upon the supply train.[22]
Blunt
was furious when he heard that Salomon and Weer had abandoned their position.
Despite this, both colonels received promotion to brigade command in Blunt’s
own newly formed division of the Army of the Frontier. Perhaps he realized that
their position had been untenable for lack of further support. Still, they had
left a much reduced force to face a resurgent Confederate Indian force.[23]
A Failed
Foothold
The
Federal foothold in Indian Territory was not as strong as hoped. One reason of
course was the failure of Weer to advance for lack of supplies. Another reason
came from further east in Missouri. Though official Confederate forces had been
pushed out of the state, numerous guerilla leaders led swift and usually
mounted bands against Federal forces. In general they proved much more
effective at stymieing the Union war effort in the Trans-Mississippi than the
Confederate Army. Confederate cavalry such as those under General Jo Shelby
also started to make raids against Federals in Missouri, as well as Arkansas.
Brigadier General John Schofield found the problem overwhelming and had to call
on Blunt for more men to suppress these activities. This left only the Union
Indian Home Brigade and a token force of Kansas artillerymen to defend refugees
and civilians.[24]
John
Ross also left the territory, along with his family, political allies, and
wagons laden with the Cherokee governmental archives. The president’s departure
North caused more problems. His government had been a somewhat moderating
force. Once he and his associates had departed, his metaphorical lid popped off
a jar of potential violence within the Cherokee Nation. Drew’s Union-leaning
Cherokees went to war with the Confederate faction. Both sides ransacked and
burned homes, destroyed crops and livestock, and murdered each other as well.[25]
Drew’s
faction briefly gained the upper hand at a skirmish on July 27. William
Phillips’ 3rd Indian Home Guard (the Cherokee regiment) advanced
along three roads towards a fork at Bayou Bernard. One column, under Lieutenant
Haneway, bumped into Watie’s men near a hill (Park Hill). Haneway’s men fired a
little and then fell back along the Park Hill Road. The Confederates pushed
into the Home Guard’s center. The Union Indians blasted them and they retreated
on horseback, “in great confusion” according to Colonel Phillips. The Federals
listed just one man severely wounded and claimed to have found 32 dead foes,
among them a lieutenant-colonel. They also took about 25 prisoners.[26]
 |
| Colonel William Phillips |
Despite their victory, the Union Indians were about out of rations. Phillips distributed the last of his bread boxes. He was reluctant to withdraw and asked for rations to be sent to him. Phillips advanced his three regiments to the west side of the Grand River, hoping to link up with Major George Foreman. Foreman had already fallen back north. Phillips then attempted to cut off McIntosh’s Confederate Creeks between the Verdigris and Arkansas Rivers. Once again he was too late, as McIntosh went south to join the rest of the Confederates at Fort Davis. A detachment went for Creek Agency Ford, where they found earthworks, but only a tiny token force which hastily fled. Phillips stayed along the Arkansas River. However, the Confederates would not engage him and he was still dangerously low on food, so he fell back north again.[27] Morale fell among the Union Indians. The 1st regiment grew uncontrollable while the most of the 2nd deserted. Unable to stay and with no chance to inflict another blow, the Indian Home Guard also turned back towards Kansas, taking along captured cattle. Pro-Union civilians joined the column, knowing what might befall them without army protection.[28]
Thus,
without winning any major battle, the Confederates regained control of Indian
Territory. Unfortunately this did not end the violence within the Cherokee
Nation, but made it more one-sided. The pro-Confederates wreaked vengeance on
any Union ally left in the territory, as well as white missionaries who
happened to be Abolitionists. They accused the Abolitionists of stirring the
Pins up against the Confederacy and thus dividing their people. About 2,000
more Indians fled into Kansas’ crowded refugee camps. With all political
opponents out of the way, Stand Watie assumed command of the Cherokee Nation,
though he still fought as a colonel.[29]
General Blunt, commanding a division in the now organized Army of the Frontier,
hoped to personally give Indian Territory another try. In August he was ready
to lead his troops in and this time establish a more permanent foothold, but
his superiors reined him in thanks to developments in the east.[30]
There
was also a change in leadership within Indian Territory. Albert Pike, who had
been critical in fostering an alliance with the nations within the region, had
been falling into the background since Pea Ridge. When General Thomas Hindman
took control of the war effort in Arkansas, Missouri, and Indian Territory,
Pike felt that he was just as inconsiderate of the needs of the Indians as any of
his predecessors. He was upset that Hindman kept requisitioning clothes and
supplies reserved for his charges. Pike resigned his commission and left on
July 31. Hindman supported Douglas Cooper, a former Indian Agent, as his
replacement, though he did express his desire to have fellow Arkansan and
friend General Patrick Cleburne take the post. Cooper had served as a
regimental commander in the first year of the war and was by the summer
commanded forces north of the Arkansas River. He was much more willing to go
along with Hindman’s directives and joined a congregating Confederate army in
Arkansas.[31]
Both
sides thus put the war in Indian Territory on hold. Indians on both sides would
instead participate in a battle in southwestern Missouri.
Next
when I continue this series: Confederates and Choctaw allies enter Missouri to
prepare the way for a major offensive. They clash with Federals under Colonel
Frederick Salomon at a town called Newtonia.
Sources
Abel, Annie
Heloise. The American Indian in the Civil
War, 1862-1865. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992.
“Battle of
Locust Grove.” https://web.archive.org/web/20150923204423/http://www.civilwar-album.com/indian/locustgrove1.htm.
Britton, Wiley. The Union Indian Brigade in the Civil War.
Kansas City: F. Hudson Publishing Co., 1922.
Cottrell, Steve.
Civil War in the Indian Territory.
Gretna: Pelican Publishing Company, 1995.
Duncan, Robert. Reluctant General: The Life and Times of
Albert Pike. New York: Dutton, 1961.
“General Blunt’s
Account of His Civil War Experiences.” Kansas
Historical Society Vol. 1 No. 3 (May 1932): 211-265.
Josephy, Alvin M. The Civil War in the American West.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991.
Knight, Wilfred.
Red Fox: Stand Watie’s Civil War Years in
Indian Territory. Glendale: A.H. Clark Co., 1988.
Monaghan, Jay. The Civil War on the Western Border,
1854-1865. Boston: First Bison Book Publishing, 1955.
United States. The War of
the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and
Confederate Armies Vol. XIII.
Washington D.C. 1898.
Wood, Larry. The Two Civil War Battles of Newtonia. Hoopla Edition, History Press, 2010.
[1] Alvin M. Josephy, The Civil War in the American West, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1991), 351.
[2] Josephy, American West, 351.
[3] Josephy, American West, 354; Annie Heloise Abel, The American Indian in the Civil War,
1862-1865, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1992), 82-83.
[4] Josephy, American West, 354; Wiley Britton, The Union Indian Brigade in the Civil War, (Kansas City: F. Hudson
Publishing Co., 1922), 61; Abel, American
Indian, 92, 95, 106-110.
[5] Steve Cottrell,
Civil War in the Indian Territory, (Gretna:
Pelican Publishing Company, 1995), 42.
[6] Abel, American Indian, 110-112, 128-129.
[7] Robert Duncan, Reluctant General: The Life and Times of
Albert Pike, (New York: Dutton, 1961), 239-240.
[8] United States, The War of
the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and
Confederate Armies Vol. XIII, (Washington
D.C. 1898), 62, 102; Larry Wood, The Two Civil War Battles of Newtonia, (Hoopla Edition, History Press, 2010), 25; Wilfred
Knight, Red Fox: Stand Watie’s Civil War
Years in Indian Territory, (Glendale: A.H. Clark Co., 1988), 111-112;
Cottrell, Indian Territory, 44.
[9] Abel, American Indian, 119-123.
[10] Knight, Red Fox, 114.
[11] Knight, Red Fox, 114-115; Britton, Indian Brigade, 65.
[12] OR XIII, 137.
[13] OR XIII, 137; Britton, Indian Brigade, 65-66.
[14] OR XIII, 137; Britton, Indian Brigade, 65.
[15] Britton, Indian Brigade, 65.
[16] OR XIII, 137-138.
[17] OR XIII, 137;
“Battle of Locust Grove,” https://web.archive.org/web/20150923204423/http://www.civil-waralbum.com/indian/locustgrove1.htm;
Britton, Indian Brigade, 66.
[18] “Battle of
Locust Grove,” https://web.archive.org/web/20150923204423/http://www.civilwaralbum.com/in-dian/locustgrove1.htm;
OR XIII, 160-161.
[19] OR XIII, 138.
[20] Britton, Indian Brigade, 67-69; OR XIII, 160-162.
[21] Britton, Indian Brigade, 68-72; OR XIII, 162.
[22] Britton, Indian Brigade, 66-67; Knight, Red
Fox, 119; Jay Monaghan, The Civil War
on the Western Border, 1854-1865, (Boston: First Bison Book Publishing,
1955), 253; Cottrell, Indian Territory,
50.
[23] Cottrell, Indian Territory, 51.
[24] Josephy, American West, 358; Cottrell, Indian
Territory, 51.
[25] Monaghan, Western Border, 253; Josephy, American
West, 358-359.
[26] OR XIII, 181-182; Josephy, American West, 359.
[27] OR XIII, 182-184.
[28] OR XIII, 184; Abel, American Indian, 145; Josephy, American West, 359.
[29] Josephy, American West, 359.
[30] Abel, American Indian, 196.
[31]Josephy, American West, 360-361; OR XIII, 51;
Knight, Red Fox, 112; Monaghan, Western Border, 256-257.
No comments:
Post a Comment