The New Mexico Campaign, 1861-1862 Part VI: The Retreat

Canby Strikes Back

Canby, still unaware of the decisive victory at Glorieta Pass, had decided to finally leave the safety of Fort Craig and go after Sibley. He had an army of 1,210 men. Though this was smaller than the Sibley Brigade, he likely expected to link up with the force at Fort Union. The rest of the men at Fort Craig stayed behind under the command of Kit Carson. Canby planned to strike at Albuquerque, but was delayed by the same weather and supply conditions that dogged the Sibley Brigade. Of course he soon learned of what had happened up north and could only have had his confidence in victory raised.[1] For his part Sibley initially planned to continue his strivings for a Confederate empire in the west, only now he would have to assume a defensive posture while waiting for more support from Texas. He took up a position on the Manzano Mountains from which he could launch a future strike. This position was oriented towards the northeast. To him Slough’s Coloradans were the biggest threat. Slough himself was not planning to move further into New Mexico. He had been shaken by his experience at Pigeon’s Ranch. Despite the destruction of the Texan supply train, Slough had been hard-pressed and almost entrapped several times in the battle. Sibley’s movement left Albuquerque and his supply depot exposed from the south. When he learned that Canby was driving north at him, he realized this new danger and rushed south to save his supplies from the Federals.[2]

Louisa Canby

One such base of supply was in Santa Fe. Louisa Canby, wife of Edward Canby, had been left there when the Texans took over. In the aftermath of Glorieta Pass she took pity on the ragged, wounded Texans and took action. She grabbed several wagons, had cots created in them, and sent them towards Glorieta Pass to recover the wounded still stuck there. One Confederate fondly remembered, “Mrs. Canby won the hearts of all our boys through her kindness to our sick and wounded.” She spent hours every day visiting the wounded, “bringing them delicacies and cheering their drooping spirits with kind words.” She even revealed hidden caches of blankets belonging to the US government, an action which aroused some disgust from Santa Fe’s Unionists. Overall, however, she came out of the campaign with a sterling reputation for kindness and charity.[3] Less fortunate were the Texan wounded down south in Socorro. These recovering survivors of Valverde had not received any fresh supplies and were starving to death. With Canby heading north, Kit Carson found himself in charge of the situation. Carson agreed to rescue the Texans at Socorro with food and other supplies if they in turn surrendered themselves on terms of parole. The agreement was finalized and 10 days’ rations were delivered. However, over 30 Texans refused to surrender even for this bountiful gift and struggled north to unite with Sibley.[4]

The New Mexico Campaign, 1861-1862 Part V: The Battle of Glorieta Pass

The Battle of Apache Canyon

Each army was now based out of a ranch on at an end of Glorieta Pass, the Texans at Johnson’s Ranch and the Federals at Pigeon’s Ranch. Glorieta Pass ran on a northward slant from both east and west, creating a semi-triangular pathway. The Federals’ base of Pigeon’s Ranch was inside the pass itself, creating a narrow, defensible area. The ranch held may buildings and corrals, much of the former made of protective adobe. On the other end, the Texans tried to go to sleep on the night of the 25^th, but this proved difficult thanks to the cold ground. The men were finally able to get some shuteye in the middle of the 26^th, when the sun warmed up the ground. While it was still fairly dark, a Union scouting party encountered four reconnoitering Santa Fe Brigands. The Brigands asked if they were being relieved. The commander of the Federals replied “Yes, we came to relieve you of your arms.” The first encounter of Glorieta Pass was a bloodless surrender.[1]

On the 26^th Chivington and his Coloradan volunteers, as well as elements of the 3^rd U.S. Cavalry, turned the northward bend and headed south into Apache Canyon. At this moment he had over 400 men. Pyron himself led nearly 450 Texans out of camp. Two evenly matched forces were set for a blind collision. Pyron was aware of his blindness, not having heard from his four Brigand scouts since the previous evening. He sent 30 men ahead to investigate along with two artillery pieces (an odd supplement for a scouting force, but as it turned out a smart move). Around 2 PM this tiny force bumped into Chivington’s column. The surprised Texans lost an officer to capture, but were able to unlimber their guns. The Rebels fired off their artillery and the Coloradans went up the two mountainsides on their left and right. This firing alerted and in some cases woke up the rest of Pyron’s men. They temporarily halted the Federal advance with their artillery.[2] Chivington kept most of his men on the slopes. In his official report he claimed that his plan was to lure the enemy in so that they would pass by the hidden men. Then the Federals could descend and surround them. In fact the Confederate were withdrawing, and the ensuing entrapment came about because part of Pyron’s force failed to join the retreat, exposing their flank. The Federals poured into their rear. They formed a line at the mouth of a side canyon, funneling the enemy into one front. Major John Shropshire came to the rescue, riding right through the Federals to rally the men. He urged, “Boys, follow me.” When informed the men did not have enough ammunition to affect a breakout, he countered, “Then take your knives and follow me.” The following escape was largely successful, though not without some losses. Two soldiers tried to hide in a hole, but as the second crawled into it a Federal spotted his legs and pulled. The soldier was dragged out. Coming along with him was the other Texan, who was desperately clinging to his comrade.[3]

The New Mexico Campaign, 1861-1862 Part IV: Into Northern New Mexico

 On to Albuquerque

The Confederate victory at Valverde temporarily halted Union opposition. The Federals prepared for the further Confederate incursions. Canby instructed Major James Donaldson and part the 3^rd U.S. Cavalry to head north and remove or destroy all supplies along Sibley’s route. He further wanted all Union forces in northern New Mexico to consolidate at Fort Union. Fort Union sat at the other end of Apache Canyon, the entryway into Colorado Territory. Donaldson followed his orders, destroying or taking all that was in Santa Fe. Santa Fe itself, despite its importance as the territorial capital, was deemed indefensible because it was surrounded by hills. It would be abandoned for the time being. Once finished, Donaldson joined Colonel Gabriel R. Paul and his 4^th New Mexico Volunteers at Fort Union. The colonel as a veteran of the Mexican War and frontier fighting and noted for his competency. Paul now had under him a company of regular soldiers, two cavalry units, two howitzers, Coloradans (more on them later), and additional New Mexican volunteers under Manuel Chaves, the descendant of a conquistador and a prominent New Mexican himself.[1]

The Sibley Brigade’s first major stop was at Socorro. The march there was very unpleasant. The ground was “deep sand. Our progress was slow as our mules were about worked down and could hardly pull the empty wagons.” The men had to physically help out and push the wheels to keep the wagons moving. The shortage of litters for Valverde’s wounded exacted a further logistical price. Texans had to cut up some of their tents to fashion new litters. The destination was worth it. Socorro was held by Captain Nicolas Pino and 200 Hispanic militiamen. The rebel guns opened fire and most of the militia abandoned Pino. The captain surrendered and the Texans moved in. Socorro provided the first real housing in over a month. The Sibley Brigade stayed there for four days, turning it into a hospital where the wounded could be left. With the wounded there, the Sibley Brigade would be able to move on without their weight slowing them down. One of the wounded, Captain Lang of the lancers, was in such agony that he begged his slave for his revolver. He promptly committed suicide with it. The brigade, aside from the wounded and some doctors and guards, marched out on February 26. These would be brought up later, but were practically at the mercy of Canby’s men should they decide to leave Fort Craig. As Sibley’s Brigade moved, small parties of Federals followed them, but at a “respectful distance.” The Confederates were actually glad to have the enemy nearby, as they were one of the only reliable sources of supplies, meaning they could steal from them through small raids and forays. They also looted the various villages they came across, to ravenous extents. They not only deprived hundreds to thousands of New Mexicans of food, livestock, and tools, but sometimes tore up their roofs and house frames for much-needed wood. Up to this time they lost about 1,000 horses to hard marching effects and Apache raids. In spite of their victory a week earlier, the rank-and-file were in tough straits. They marched with thirst and “gnawing hunger,” with little transportation to haul their baggage. Stragglers lined the route. Even the hard-fighting Lieutenant-Colonel Scurry began to lose heart and made a failed bid to resign. The officers and men of the Sibley Brigade hoped that the capture of Albuquerque would relieve their suffering.[2]

The New Mexico Campaign, 1861-1862 Part III: The Battle of Valverde

Valverde

Canby’s Forces

Canby was aware as early as June 1861 that the Texans were preparing a major invasion of New Mexico. For the first few months of the war, however, he was much more focused on ending an upsurge in Apache and Navajo raids. He sent small teams of soldiers around the territory to skirmish with Navajo warriors and seize their sheep herds. This strategy was starting to yield results when the Texan Confederate threat was confirmed. Though Sibley’s Brigade had many logistical obstacles to overcome, Canby, as was common with Civil War commanders, overestimated the size of the enemy’s and felt he needed more men.[1] Canby requested that Colorado and Utah Territories raise troops, to be sent to him if necessary. Colorado was quicker to respond Recruitment for Coloradan units proceeded at Denver. Hundreds of gold miners, many having not achieved the rich successes they had expected, answered the call. With winter coming in, there would be a halt of mining activity. Unable to make income and for the most part not having stockpiled enough gains, the miners saw a chance to receive guaranteed pay and food, and perhaps some excitement. The first ready unit, Company B of the 2^nd Colorado, fell under the command of West Point graduate Theodore Dodd. Meant to be part of a full regiment, they were already equipped and trained ahead of the other companies in their unit. On January 1, the Coloradans learned that they would not be spending the winter in camp. Canby needed all the help he could get and Dodd was to lead his company to Santa Fe. The men were motivated. They would not only get some adventure, they would ensure that Colorado Territory was represented in the war. As they would go ahead without the rest of their regiment, they came to be known as “Dodd’s Independents.” The Coloradans marched through snow-covered trails in the mountains. The men took their first experience of military campaigning well. They had already led rough, physical lives in their search for gold and would not leave a trail of stragglers and discarded items as many early Civil War armies did.[2] Upon arrival, the Coloradans found New Mexico exotic. They appreciated the native and Mexican architecture and loved the fandangos where they could dance and drink to their heart’s content. On the other hand they did not think much of the inhabitants. They thought the Hispanics a collection of laborers and criminals and a few thought the Anglo-Americans there to be deeply immoral.[3]

They arrived at Fort Craig to find that Canby’s white and Hispanic troops were not getting along with each other very well. The Hispanics felt correctly that they were perceived as inferiors and reacted strongly to insults or perceived slights. They were also concerned that they had made a grievous mistake by agreeing to spend several years in the US Army while their homes were under assault by Indians. The whites were equally flustered thanks to the language barrier. Many Hispanics understood little to no English and it was hard to pass down orders. The New Mexican volunteer units were not a hundred percent Hispanic. Many whites lived in the territory and volunteered as well. Whites in primarily Hispanic volunteer units could understand orders passed down by high-ranking white officers, but their own Hispanic officers might not, resulting in confused disputes regarding orders.[4] Canby was not above prejudices and was determined not to come to battle with Sibley in a way that would require the Hispanics to maneuver under fire. His prejudice, however, was less concerned with any racial or cultural issues and more with the performance of inexperienced men under fire.[5]

The New Mexico Campaign, 1861-1862 Part II: Confederate Arizona and Sibley's Scheme

Confederate Arizona

 

Further Fights with the Federals

By late summer of 1861, the Confederacy had a firm foothold in New Mexico Territory. Confederate Arizona was the first conquest of the emerging nation and it was hoped that it would just be the first of many. Recognizing that Canby’s Union force would soon largely outnumber the Confederates, Baylor appointed native Hispanics to prominent posts in an effort to win over the majority of the population and keep his position secure until more aid could arrive from the east.[1] Even with the establishment of a new government, the violence still raged between Texan and Federal forces. Small groups of Baylor’s men and Federals got into several skirmishes. In these the Texans usually claimed victory. The first such victory came when they beat off a Union raid on a Confederate horse herd. On the night of September 24 a small force of Federal Hispanic volunteers under Captain John H. Minks were investigating the town of Alamosa when they heard what sounded like an Indian war whoop. Instead of Indians they found Texan pickets. After a short firefight the Texans withdrew. The following day Minks found himself and his volunteers in a poor position. The Texan commander, Captain Bethel Coopwood, had been sent to scout the area around Fort Craig and now stood between Minks and safety at his home base. The New Mexican Volunteers made a dash for it, but a good chunk was force into a fight. An hour long firefight ensued, with the Texans enjoying the benefits of two high ridges. The Federals attempted to fight their way out towards Fort Craig. With a spyglass Minks saw that 60 horsemen were about to charge his line.  He surrendered along with a few wagons, but most of his men had already got away, the skirmish giving them time to put some distance towards Fort Craig. The Texans escaped with 2 killed and 10 wounded. In addition to those captured on the 25^th, the Federals lost about a dozen killed and wounded in these engagements.[2]

 

The New Mexico Campaign, 1861-1862 Part I: Confederate Conquest of the West

In popular media the Civil War has often been linked to the Old West. Sergio Leone’s spaghetti western The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly has played a large role in this. In this classic, three ruthless gunslingers search for gold that was hidden by a ring of Confederate soldiers. Complicating their quest, as well as their competition with each other, is the war unfolding around them. While the Civil War serves as more of a backdrop and obstacle, the fact that the war was fought in the deserts and adobe towns of the southwest was little known by the general public. But in reality the area was a major battlefield in the first year of the war. The secession and creation of the Confederate States of America was motivated by a desire to preserve slavery for the future. For slavery to continue to flourish, the would-be nation needed new land and territory, and it was to be found to the west and south, in locations such as southern California, New Mexico, and even northern Mexico. Even while a war was raging to the east, a few thousand Texans decided that the time was ripe in 1861 for their imperial ambitions to be realized. One general who had served in Mexico as a Federal officer, Henry Hopkins Sibley, would spearhead the main thrust of this military operation. What followed was a long war, lasting almost a year, in which ambitious Texans, Federal troops, and also the Apache battled for the future of the American West. At the end of this series I hope to provide an answer to the questions of whether this campaign was important to the Civil War and if it was possible for the Confederacy to accomplish their goals.

New Year's Battle: The Fight for Galveston (1862-1863)

One of the Union’s grand strategies was to strangle the Southern Coast with the Anaconda Plan. The Union government and navy purchased or enlisted as many civilian ships as it could to fulfill the enormous task of blocking off every Southern port. Up to 1863 the blockade was maintained with difficulty. Blockade runners regularly slipped through the cordon. To ease the blockade, the navy coordinated with the army to seize major Southern ports. This not only deprived the blockade runners of sites to drop off war supplies, it gave the navy facilities for maintaining and supplying their ships and the army launching points for further incursions. By the end of 1862, few major Southern ports remained open to blockade runners. At the dawn of 1863, however, Confederate General John Bankhead Magruder, newly arrived in the westernmost seceded state of Texas, launched a scheme that would defy the blockade. He aimed to take back Galveston and save Texas from a planned Union invasion.

 

The Great City of Texas

At the time of the Civil War Galveston was the largest city in Texas. Much of the state was still considered frontier territory and the time had not come yet for locations such as Houston and San Antonio. Galveston originated as a base of operations for the privateer Louis-Michel Aury, but soon the infamous Lafitte family from New Orleans took over. One of their most successful criminal enterprises was human trafficking. As Texas was part of Mexican territory and loosely controlled at that, the Lafittes were able to participate in the illegal slave trade with less intervention from the United State government. Even after Texas became an American state pirates continued to intercept slave ships in the Caribbean and sell their human cargo to Texas and Louisiana. The legal internal slave trade flourished as well, and Galveston boasted the largest slave market west of New Orleans. Since many slaves were involved in maritime businesses, slavery was enforced more rigidly than in other locations of the South. Heavier punishments and restrictions on the movement of blacks were necessary to prevent escape as slaves trained in ship work could would have the necessary skills to seize a boat and make for any number of Caribbean or Latin American countries where slavery was illegal. For a Southern city, Galveston also boasted an incredible number of immigrants. As a coastal city it was an ideal spot for people from Ireland, the German states, and other locations to enter the United States. By 1860 about 40 percent of the city’s population was foreign-born.[1]